Research terminology and proposal concepts
Core meaning: Research is a systematic inquiry designed to generate or validate knowledge.
Step-by-step learning
Clear, relevant and researchable.
Find what is known and the gap.
Independent, dependent and confounding.
Testable prediction and measurable terms.
Uncontrolled weaknesses versus researcher-set boundaries.
Key points to remember
- Operational definition states how a concept is measured.
- A hypothesis predicts a relationship.
- Reliability is consistency; validity is accuracy.
- What is an operational definition?
- Differentiate limitation and delimitation.
- Explain variables, hypothesis and operational definitions.
- Differentiate validity and reliability with examples.
Research ethics and NHRC principles
Core meaning: Ethical research protects dignity, rights, safety and welfare of participants.
Step-by-step learning
The study should answer a worthwhile question.
Obtain approval before recruitment.
Information, understanding, capacity and voluntariness.
Confidentiality and secure data.
Minimise harm and report adverse events.
Key points to remember
- Vulnerable groups require added safeguards.
- Participation is voluntary and withdrawal must be allowed.
- Avoid fabrication, falsification and plagiarism.
- What are elements of informed consent?
- Which body provides national ethical guidance?
- Discuss ethical principles in nursing research.
- Explain safeguards for vulnerable participants.
Research designs and sampling
Core meaning: Design is the overall plan; sampling selects a subset of the population.
Step-by-step learning
Quantitative, qualitative or mixed.
Descriptive, analytical, experimental or qualitative.
Eligibility and setting.
Probability or non-probability.
Randomisation, blinding or matching where appropriate.
Key points to remember
- Probability: simple random, systematic, stratified and cluster.
- Non-probability: convenience, purposive, quota and snowball.
- RCT gives strong evidence for intervention effects when feasible.
- Which method gives every subject an equal chance?
- A study beginning with cases and controls is what design?
- Classify research designs.
- Compare probability and non-probability sampling.
Data collection and instrument development
Core meaning: Data may be collected by interview, questionnaire, observation, record review or measurement.
Step-by-step learning
Every item should serve a study question.
Clear, neutral and culturally appropriate.
Expert review and content coverage.
Check clarity, time and feasibility.
Consistency where appropriate.
Key points to remember
- Avoid leading and double-barrelled questions.
- Standardise data-collector training.
- Pilot participants usually are not included in the main study.
- Why is pilot testing done?
- What is a leading question?
- Describe steps in questionnaire development.
- Discuss methods of data collection.
Statistics, report writing and dissemination
Core meaning: Statistics summarise data and support inference; reports communicate methods and findings.
Step-by-step learning
Check completeness and errors.
Frequency, percentage, mean, median and dispersion.
Select tests based on design and data type.
Effect, uncertainty and practical meaning.
Structured report, presentation and publication.
Key points to remember
- Mean is affected by outliers.
- Type I error is false positive; Type II error is false negative.
- Correlation does not prove causation.
- Which measure is most affected by extreme values?
- What is Type I error?
- Explain descriptive and inferential statistics.
- Describe structure of a research report and dissemination methods.
Importance of nursing research
Core meaning: Nursing research improves evidence, safety, efficiency, education and policy.
Step-by-step learning
Use audit or clinical observation.
Search and appraise research.
Consider resources and patient values.
Train and change protocol.
Measure outcomes and sustain improvement.
Key points to remember
- Evidence-based practice integrates evidence, expertise and patient values.
- Research utilisation differs from conducting research.
- Quality improvement is local service change; research aims at generalisable knowledge.
- What are the three elements of evidence-based practice?
- Discuss importance of research in nursing services.
- Explain how research findings are translated into practice.