Anatomy and physiology of major systems
Core meaning: Anatomy studies structure; physiology studies function.
Step-by-step learning
Major organs and anatomical relationships.
Circulation, ventilation, digestion, movement, control, sensation, reproduction and endocrine regulation.
Relate dysfunction to symptoms.
Vital signs and system examination.
Use knowledge for safe nursing interventions.
Key points to remember
- Cardiac output = heart rate × stroke volume.
- Gas exchange occurs across the alveolar-capillary membrane.
- The nervous and endocrine systems coordinate body function.
- What determines cardiac output?
- Where does gas exchange occur?
- Explain cardiac cycle and its nursing significance.
- Describe regulation of respiration.
- Write short notes on endocrine feedback.
Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and important drugs
Core meaning: Pharmacokinetics is what the body does to a drug; pharmacodynamics is what the drug does to the body.
Step-by-step learning
Entry into circulation.
Movement to tissues.
Chemical alteration, often in liver.
Removal, often by kidneys.
Therapeutic action, adverse effects and interactions.
Key points to remember
- Use the rights of medication administration.
- High-alert medicines require added safeguards.
- Essential and life-saving drug lists must be checked in their current official form.
- ADME refers to what?
- Which organ commonly metabolises drugs?
- Differentiate pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.
- Discuss safe administration of high-alert drugs.
General pathophysiology
Core meaning: Pathophysiology explains functional changes caused by disease.
Step-by-step learning
Reversible versus irreversible damage.
Vascular and cellular response.
Clot formation and travelling obstruction.
Inflammation, proliferation and remodelling.
Uncontrolled abnormal growth.
Key points to remember
- Necrosis is uncontrolled cell death.
- Virchow’s triad: stasis, endothelial injury and hypercoagulability.
- Malignant tumours invade and metastasise.
- What is Virchow’s triad?
- Which phase forms granulation tissue?
- Explain inflammation and wound healing.
- Differentiate benign and malignant neoplasm.
- Discuss thrombosis and embolism.
Microbiology and sterilisation
Core meaning: Microbiology studies microorganisms and their role in infection.
Step-by-step learning
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and others.
Reservoir, portal and route.
Specimen and laboratory testing.
Guide antimicrobial selection.
Cleaning, disinfection, sterilisation and standard precautions.
Key points to remember
- Sterilisation destroys all microorganisms including spores.
- Autoclaving uses pressurised steam.
- Opportunistic infections occur when host defence is weakened.
- Which method sterilises heat-stable instruments?
- What is an opportunistic infection?
- Classify microorganisms.
- Explain antimicrobial sensitivity testing.
- Compare disinfection and sterilisation.
Biochemistry, digestion and vitamins
Core meaning: Digestion breaks nutrients into absorbable forms; metabolism uses them for energy and tissue function.
Step-by-step learning
Digested to monosaccharides.
Digested to amino acids.
Emulsified and absorbed as lipid products.
Deficiency, weight loss and diarrhoea.
Fat-soluble A, D, E, K and water-soluble B, C.
Key points to remember
- Fat-soluble vitamins can accumulate.
- Vitamin C supports collagen formation.
- Vitamin D supports calcium balance.
- Which vitamins are fat soluble?
- Deficiency of vitamin C causes what?
- Explain digestion and absorption of major nutrients.
- Classify vitamins and describe major deficiency states.
Nutrition assessment and therapeutic diet
Core meaning: Nutrition care assesses status and provides appropriate diet for age, disease and culture.
Step-by-step learning
Anthropometry, clinical signs, diet and laboratory data.
Deficiency, excess or disease-related need.
Calories, protein, micronutrients and texture.
Food hygiene and cultural acceptability.
Weight, intake and clinical response.
Key points to remember
- BMI is one adult screening measure, not a complete assessment.
- Therapeutic diets modify nutrient, texture or timing.
- Food beliefs should be explored respectfully.
- What does BMI screen for?
- Which diet is appropriate in dysphagia?
- Describe nutritional assessment.
- Plan a therapeutic diet for diabetes or hypertension.
- Discuss food safety and common deficiency diseases.